TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC INNOVATIONS IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN EUROPE

Abstract

The medieval period in Christian Europe, traditionally characterized as an era of stagnation and intellectual darkness, has been substantially reevaluated by modern scholarship. This article examines the technological and economic innovations that emerged in Christendom between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, demonstrating that the Middle Ages witnessed a remarkable transformation in agricultural practices, mechanical engineering, financial institutions, and educational structures. Medieval Europe experienced what may be termed a first industrial and commercial revolution that laid essential groundwork for later European economic and technological dominance.